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Words in Science Articles

The words that science articles use to explain simple facts can certainly cause a lot of confusion, even when you think you know the definitions.

Small Glossary of Food Production and Processing Terms

The terms listed here often appear in articles concerning food production and food processing.

Additives
A food additive is a substance added to a food product during the processing method. Additives mentioned in science articles are often vitamins, minerals, fiber, or chemicals used to enhance the the nutritional quality of a food product. Other additives may be used to alter the appearance (such as texture or color) of a food, or are used to preserve freshness or prevent foods from spoiling. Processed foods commonly contain additive sugar or salt to enhance flavor, which can add calories and sodium to your diet without your awareness.

Beyond Organic
Farmers who raise their animals and crops using methods that are stricter than the USDA organic standards but who do not maintain official organic certification deliver food products referred to by some people as “Beyond Organic”. The term organic has become a business term used by large corporations that can afford the expense of government certification. The beyond organic term carries no certification but indicates concern for the health of the food crop.

Biodynamics
Biodynamics is a term science articles use refer to farm production methods that adhere to a holistic philosophy. In biodynamics diverse farming aspects all contribute to the whole farm unit. This is an agricultural method in which a third-party agent certifies the agricultural practices strive to make a self-sufficient farm that provides its own seeds, soil fertility, feed for a variety of animals, and varied environments (from ponds and hedges to orchards, woods and pasture) to develop the right blend of animals, crops, and land use to to harmonize farm activities with nature. Successful biodynamic farms create healthy environments for sustainable food production: an excellent place for healthy fiber foods to grow.

Biome The term biome refers to an area on the planet that shares similar climate factors, such as temperatures, predominant vegetation, organism presence and adaptation. Biome classifications mentioned in science articles identify freshwater, marine, desert, forest, grassland, tundra as six major types. Changes in biome characteristics impact plant and animal habitats, disrupting life cycles and triggering adaptation of organisms, which can affect the types of food produced in the area.

Biotic
The term biotic describes factors related to life or living organisms. In the environment, the biotic factors include all the living organisms and those things related to life, such as competition for food, dependence, and predatory actions. See prebiotic and probiotic.

Clean Air Act
In 1970 the United States passed a first set of laws directed toward improving air quality by regulating pollutants released into the air by manufacturing processes. Revision of the Clean Air Act in 1990 added attention to specific issues such as the ozone layer and acid rain. The establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency localized responsibility for enforcement of these environmental laws.

Clean Water Act
In 1972 the United States passed a set of laws addressing water pollution. This federal regulation placed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in charge of enforcing these standards. The Clean Water Act strives to completely stop the discharge of pollutants into the Waters of the United States; however, identifying the source of pollution remains difficult and expensive. The goal is to make all bodies of water in the United States healthy locations to fish and swim. Such water, of course, is essential to grow healthy fiber foods.

Country of Origin Labeling
This initiative to label the country in which a food commodity is produced is intended to provide consumers valuable information about food products. This type of labeling is meant to increase awareness of the resources spent on food distribution, to encourage buying of local products, and to easily trace food in case of product contamination or recall.

Cover crops
These crops are grown to prevent soil erosion and to protect the soil surface. Cover crops are not grown with the intent to harvest food, but instead to nurture the soil.

Crop rotation
Alternating the crops planted in a field in planned cycles helps to regulate the nitrogen level in soil, prevent erosion, and reduce the need for fertilizer. The goal is to improve the land to promote long-term productivity.

Diversified Farming
Diversified farming refers to a method that produces more than one agricultural product from the farm system. This method differs from the accepted monoculture farming known for efficiency and ease of management. Diversified farming allows the economic risk of product yield and price fluctuation to be spread across a variety of farm products and growing seasons. Careful management of diversified crops can bring more advantages to the farm by suppressing weeds, pests (insects), and pathogens, stabilizing soil nutrients, and conserving moisture.

Eco-labeling
Food labels that identify products which cause less damage to the environment than other products. Some eco-labels indicate adherence to strict guidelines that is verified by third-part agents. Other labels have no verification methods. Common eco-labels include "Fair Trade", "organic", "Food Alliance certified", "raised without antibiotics", "locally grown", and "GMO-free". Additional eco-label information can be found at the Consumer Reports Greener Choices website.

Electronic Pasteurization
The term electronic pasteurization may be used in science articles to mean that food is treated with irradiation in order to control spoilage or remove pathogens.

EPA
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established in the United States in 1970 to consolidate into one agency various federal activities (research, monitoring, setting standards, and regulation enforcement) required to protect the natural environment: air, water, and land. The mission for the EPA is protection of human health and the environmental resources upon which life depends. EPA enforces environmental laws, publishes data reports (science articles), and provides information and guidance to policy makers.

Food Manufacturer
A food manufacturer does not make food. Food is a natural resource, like water and air. A Food Manufacturer merely manipulates food sources into products that humans have learned to use as food. They make name brands and promote specific products. Typically, loss of nutrients, flavor, and energy occurs during the food "manufacturing" processes. For the most healthful benefits rely on natural whole foods.

Food Safety
Food safety defined by the World Health Organization means that food will be safe for consumption. Concerns for food safety include exposure to chemical and biological elements, sanitary production and processing, protection from food borne disease, and potential impact of genetically modified (GM) foods and food products containing genetically modified organisms (GMO). The Codex Alimentarius Commission sets food safety guidelines and practices to protect public health and fair international food trade practices.

Food Security
The concept of food security includes both economic access and physical access to adequate food nutrition. Food security means that all people in an area have access to a supply of safe and nutritious food in a quantity that is sufficient to meet the dietary requirements for maintaining the health of each person.

Genetic Engineering
Science has developed methods to isolate and modify DNA (removing, replacing, or adding a gene) to achieve a precise result. The controversial issues regarding genetic engineering of food are often the subject of science articles. Concerns about the safety of consuming genetically modified foods and the possible environmental consequences caused by gene manipulation are continuing subjects for science article publications.

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
A genetically modified food comes from a plant or animal that has had a specific alteration made to its DNA (genetic instructions). A plant might absorb more of a particular mineral, or produce more of a nutrient in its food product. Or the food may take longer to ripen, allowing it to remain fresher during shipment to market. Science articles often report the percieved food enhancement, usability, or profitability.

Heritage
Heritage food crops grow from older, often rare or endangered, seed sources. In livestock, heritage refers to breeds of animals that are pure bred or to a specific breed of animal that is near extinction. Heritage farmers typically use sustainable production methods, although no standards or laws exist concerning heritage farming.

Groundwater
The water flowing beneath the earth's surface through underground streams is referred to as groundwater. This water source fills the aquifer systems important for sustaining life on our planet.

Heavy Metals
While some minerals are important nutrients, excessive amounts of metallic chemicals like cadmium, arsenic, copper and zinc can become harmful pollutants in soil and water. Often used in animal feed to promote growth, these heavy metals are dispersed through animal waste into the environment. Unlike human waste which is treated to remove heavy metals, published science articles report that animal waste is released without treatment. Because heavy metals do not decompose, removing such pollution from soil or water is extremely difficult.

Holistic Management
This type of management system recognizes the influence of each part of a process has on the whole. Science articles describing biodiverse farming methods use the term holistic management to describe how the environment impacts decisions and goals of the farm's processes to meet its social, economic, and financial requirements. Holistic management strives to implement principles evident in nature to create sustainable food production systems.

Integrated Pest Management
Integrated Pest Management (often identified as IPM in science articles) uses a variety of evaluation and decision techniques before implementing pest control actions. One goal is to effect environmentally sensitive pest management in both agricultural and home or work locations. IPM programs use knowledge of pest life cycle and environment interaction, beneficial microbes, and biological pesticide (chemicals distilled from plants), as well as current available pest control methods including limited use of synthetic pesticides. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies a four-teir plan for IPM programs: threshold, identification and monitoring, prevention, and then control evaluation and action. IPM programs respond to public awareness of the negative impact synthetic pesticides have on the environment and human health. Growth of the organic foods market may also be raising interest in more natural and less environmentally risky pest control methods.

Irradiation
The purpose of food irradiation (passing food through a radiation beam) is to control spoilage and eliminate food-borne pathogens, like salmonella. The result is similar to conventional pasteurization, and often irradiation is called "cold pasteurization" or "irradiation pasteurization." Like pasteurization, irradiation kills bacteria and other pathogens. While conventional pasteurization relies on heat, irradiation relies on the energy of ionizing radiation. Irradiation traces back to 1905 when a patent for a food preservative process using ion radiation to kill bacteria in food was granted. As present use of food irradiation grows, concerns for the health of food sources and for our public health grows.

Monoculture
When a science article refers to the agriculturalal monoculture practice, it means that only a single crop is produced in one land area. Modern industrial agriculture implements monoculture because it allows efficient planting, maintenance, and harvesting standards to be applied. Crops are able to produce large harvests with minimal labor effort. However, monoculture methods can drain nutrients from soil, and they can lead to the spread of disease when a crop is susceptible to or infected by a pathogen. The term crop monoculture used in science articles refers to the practice of growing the same crop year after year. Compare monoculture to biodynamics.

No-till farming
This agricultural practice is designed to retain nutrients and water in the soil. The goal is to prevent loss of organic matter, prevent destruction of organisms in soil (microbes, earth worms, fungi) and prevent conditions that cause soil to compact or erode. Science articles describe no-till farming as an emerging and viable technique intended to reduce costs and carbon dioxide release, and to provide environmental benefits. However the efficiency, productivity, and profitability of this practice are not well established.

Non-point Source Pollution
When a science article refers to non-point Source Pollution (NPS), it means that contamination comes from multiple causes that cannot be traced to a single discrete source. Wind, rain, and water can move harmful substances great distances and help these substances to accummulate in one area.

Nutrient pollution
Water contaminated by an over-abundunce of nutrients washed out of fertized soil is the subject of many science articles. When nutrient-laden water collects (in lakes, river, or ponds), algea bloom (overproducton of algae) may deplete oxygen from the water and cause marine life (including fish and sea foods) to suffocate.

Organic
The term organic specifically refers to food grown and processed in compliance with the regulations and standards developed by the USDA. To be labeled “organic,” the farm producer and the food product, as well as all companies that handle or process the food on way to market, must meet the organic standards of the USDA and be inspected by USDA-approved food certifier. Animals providing meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products must not be given antibiotics or growth hormones. Organic food must be grown without use of most conventional pesticides or fertilizers (made from synthetic ingredients or sewage sludge), and cannot have been produced through biological engineering or treated with ionizing radiation.

Prebiotic
In food, a prebiotic ingrediant stimulates growth and activity of bacteria in the digestive system. Soluble fiber provides the most prevalent prebiotic forms of these functional (or medicinal) foods.

Probiotic
A probiotic food is one that provides a live micro-organism that can benefit your health. The probiotic in a food most usually contains a bacteria, similar to bacteria naturally found in the digestive system. Microscopic virus and yeast organisms can also transfer probiotic benefits. Probiotic foods include fermented and cultured milk and soy products (yogurt, tempeh, miso).

Runoff
The term runoff refers to precipitation or irrigation water that runs across the ground and into a well-formed body of water (like a lake, river, or pond). Runoff can carry pollutants from the soil into nearby bodies of water and increase soil erosion.

Salmonella
Salmonella is bacteria that can cause food poisoning, which is often reported in public health announcement and the subject of science article research. Because this bacteria can survive several months in water, it is often transported by polluted water to food sources. Foods contamined with salmonella are more likely to be meats and raw eggs than produce.

USDA
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the government agency concerned with agricultural development and technology research, as well as forest and rangeland use. Because reducing hunger in the United States and throughout the world is a part of the USDA mission, the USDA also attends to food safety and nutrition research and application, publishing science articles on varied agriculture-related topics for public education.

Waste and Wastewater
Treatment of waste from industrial livestock facilities is not required. Such waste often is held in large pools (lagoons) and spread in farm fields. Science articles on the dangers of manure and chemical toxins describe absorbtion into soil, where runoff may carry pollutants into bodies of water and water systems near food crops or populated residential areas.

Watershed
A watershed as referred to in a science article is an area of land bounded by natural land features that are linked by their common water course, where underground water and surface waters drain into a common waterway (streams, lakes, estuary, wetlands, aquifer, or ocean). Life within the watershed area relies on the availability, accessibily, and cleanliness of the water.

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Nutrition based on data assembled from United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.
g=grams, mg=milligrams, mcg=micrograms, kcal=calories